As one of the leading theologians of the Protestant Reformation John Calvin helped define and shape Protestant theology. One of Calvin's lasting legacies is Protestantism's iconoclasm. According to Georg Kretschmar, "Calvin built up the most precise and radical position opposed to the icon theology of the 787 Council of Nicea" (1990:80). Where Luther was quite tolerant of images in churches, Calvin and his followers were much more vigorous in their opposition to images in the church. As a consequence, Protestant places of worship have a stark austerity in comparison to Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox Churches. [1]

The Seventh Ecumenical Council, Nicea II, stands as a landmark in church history. It was at this council that the Church decisively affirmed the use of icons for worship. It was here that icons were recognized as being an integral part of liturgical worship and of the historic Christian Faith. Any attempt to disprove the veneration of icons must come to grips with the decision made at Nicea II and early theologians like St. John of Damascus. Therefore, one of the tasks of this page is not only to assess Calvin's position on the icons on its own ground, but also in relation to historic Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy.

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The Logic of Calvin's Iconoclasm

In order to understand Calvin's opposition to icons, we must first understand the logic of his Institutes of the Christian Religion. [2] Calvin devotes no little attention to the issue of icons. He devotes three chapters of this book to attacking the icons (Book I, chapters 10-12). Only after we can show that we understand Calvin's arguments against the icons, can we proceed to critically assess the validity of Calvin's iconoclasm.

The starting point of Calvin's Institutes is the question: How can we know God? In Book I we see him denying the possibility of knowing God through creation but affirming the possibility of knowing God through the Scriptures.

We have taught that the knowledge of God, otherwise quite clearly set forth in the system of the universe and in all creatures, is nonetheless more intimately and also more vividly revealed in his Word (Institutes 1.10.1).

For Calvin, God's transcendence not only rendered him unknowable, it also made him beyond human comprehension. Therefore, it became axiomatic that any human attempt to depict the transcendent God in a visible representation was not only a gross superstition, it also deformed our understanding of the true God and distorts our worship of the one true God (see Institutes 1.11.9).

...we must cling to this principle: God's glory is corrupted by an impious falsehood whenever any form is attached to him (Institutes 1.11.1).

This principle is valid in light of the predominance of paganism in the ancient world. The Old Testament injunctions against idols and graven images were necessary in order to protect the purity of Israel's monotheism. However it seems that such a sweeping statement about "any form" would even rule out the possibility of the Incarnation of the Word of God. St. Paul in his letter to the Philippians 2:6-7 described the Incarnation in terms of Jesus having the "form of God" and taking on the "form of a servant".

Calvin seems to have assumed that in both the Old and New Testament worship of God was totally devoid of images: "What punishments do the prophets, apostles, martyrs, deserve, in whose days no images existed?" (Institutes 1.11.16). However either Calvin is overstating his case or he ignores biblical references to art forms in the Old Testament tabernacles: the sculpted cherubim over the ark of the tabernacle, the faces of the cherubim woven into the tabernacle curtains, and the twelve bulls that held up the Sea of cast metal (see Exodus 26, I Kings 6 & 7). There is also the carved images of cherubim and palm trees in the New Temple (Ezekiel 41:15 ff.).

Archaeological evidence shows that as late as the 3rd Century, Jewish synagogues appear to have used images in their interiors, as demonstrated by the findings from the synagogue at Dura Europos in modern Syria (circa 240-250 A.D.).

Calvin's failure to treat the use of images in synagoge worship, in contrast to the appearance of images in the Old or New Testament may be attributed to lack of archaeological scholarship in his day. However, it does clearly illustrate that the use of images in the Old Testament is representative of the actual temple and synagogue practice of Judaism. What is astonishing is that Calvin seems not to have dealt with these passages in his Institutes. [3]

In Institutes 1.11.3 Calvin takes note of the fact that God did manifest himself in the Old Testament through visual forms but that these do not justify attempts to depict God. For Calvin even the depictions of cherubim in the Old Testament Tabernacle cannot justify the use of images.

Hence it is perfectly clear that those who try to defend images of God and the saints with the example of those cherubim are raving madmen. What, indeed, I beg you, did those paltry little images mean? Solely that images are not suited to represent God's mysteries (Institutes 1.11.3).

For Calvin the nature and purpose of the Tabernacle was not to manifest the divine presence as to point to its hiddenness. He writes,

The mercy seat from which God manifested the presence of his power under the law was so constructed as to suggest that the best way to contemplate the divine is where minds are lifted above themselves with admiration. Indeed, the cherubim with wings outspread covered it; the veil shrouded it; the place itself deeply enough hidden concealed it [Exodus 25:17-21] (Institutes 1.11.3).

Did Calvin overemphasize the concealing aspects of the Tabernacle? It is probably more accurate to say that the Tabernacle both revealed and concealed the divine Presence. The divine Presence, the shekinah glory, was situated deep within the Holy of Holies. This was the place where only the High Priest could enter and only once a year, and points to the Tabernacle's concealing function. However there is also the Tabernacle's revealing function. Visual depictions of the cherubim were far more profuse than Calvin lets on. Images of the cherubim were visible on the inner-curtain of the Holy Place and on the curtains that made up the Tabernacle structure (Exodus 26). A more fair reading of the biblical text will lead us to conclude that the visual arts were an integral part of Old Testament worship.

Calvin's hostility to the use of images stemmed from his desire for the glory of God -- soli deo gloria. Anything that detracted from God's glory or obscured it was to be vigorously opposed. His hostility was also based upon his belief that it is it is impossible to visually depict God who is invisible and transcendent.

We believe it wrong that God should be represented by a visible appearance, because he himself has forbidden it [Exodus 20:4] and it cannot be done without some defacing of his glory (Institutes 1.11.12).

Calvin had no objection to sculpture and paintings in themselves. He recognized them to be gifts from God and legitimate in their own proper spheres (Institutes 1.11.12). But he strongly objected to their use in the realm of religious worship and teaching. Calvin argues that visual representation were allowable with respect to creation but not with respect to God.

Therefore it remains that only those things are to be sculptured or painted which the eyes are capable of seeing: let not God's majesty, which is far above the perception of the eyes, be debased through unseemly representations (Institutes 1.11.12).

This argument is similar to the position taken by Eastern Orthodoxy. The Orthodox position is that God the Father cannot be represented in the icons. The Orthodox position also holds that because God the Son took on human flesh in his Incarnation, it was possible to depict the Son in the icons. St. John of Damascus anticipated the main thrust of Calvin's argument against icons when he argued that the Old Testament injunction against images was given in order to prevent the Israelites from attempting to represent the invisible God. He noted however that the situation changed with the incarnation of Divine Word.

It is clearly a prohibition against representing the invisible God. But when you see Him who has no body become man for you, then you will make representations of His human aspect. When the Invisible, having clothed Himself in the flesh, become visible, then represent the likeness of Him who has appeared. When He who, having been the consubstantial Image of the Father, emptied Himself by taking the form of a servant, thus becoming bound in quantity and quality, having taken on the carnal image, then paint and make visible to everyone Him who desired to become visible (in Ouspensky 1978:44).

Calvin's failure to deal with St. John of Damascus probably constitutes the greatest weakness in his polemic against the icons. It is a serious oversight because St. John of Damascus provided the classic biblical and theological defense for the veneration of icons.

Perhaps the saddest thing about it is that St. John's theological apologetic for the use of icons reflects centuries of church history, back to early Christian faith and practice-this is not a Medieval theological concoction. This can clearly be seen in the archeological reconstruction of the early Christian church at Dura Europos (circa 240-250 A.D.), which is the earliest Christian church yet to be found.

Of note is that this church was built and in use a full seventy five years before Constantine's Edict of Toleration, thus representing typical practice while the early Church was still under the duress of persecution-thus representing typical practice. This makes Calvin's polemic against the icons one of the greatest missed opportunities in church history. This omission means that there was no real engagement between the Reformed and Eastern Orthodox theological traditions in the sixteenth century. The two traditions are like two ships passing each other in the middle of the night.

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The Philological Argument

As a Renaissance humanist scholar one of the tools that Calvin employed was the discipline of philology or historical linguistics (Bouwsma 1988:12). Calvin's critique of the semantic distinction between dulia "veneration" and latreia "worship" in Institutes 1.11.11, 1.12.2 and 1.12.3 would seem to be one of his strongest attacks against the veneration of icons. The defenders of icons argued that they were attributing to icons "veneration", not "adoration". In response to this, Calvin resorts to a number of proof texts to demolish this claim.

However Calvin's philological argument misses the point. The dulia/latreia distinction was unique to medieval Catholicism. John Cochlaeus, a contemporary of Calvin, used this distinction in response to Calvin's Inventory of Relics (see Calvin 1960:111 n. 21). This distinction was not used at Nicea II (see Cavarnos 1973:9-10). This tells us that Calvin was not familiar with the official Orthodox position on icons. More importantly, it means that Calvin's polemic against icons never effectively refuted the Orthodox position on icons.

The closest Calvin comes to rebutting the terminology of Nicea II is in his study of the word proskuneo. Calvin marshals a whole list of prooftexts where honor improperly given is strongly discouraged: Satan's temptation of Jesus (Matthew 4:10), John's prostration to the angel in Revelation (Revelation 19:10 & 22:8-9), Cornelius' falling before Peter's feet (Acts 10:25). The word used in these three passages is proskuneo which can have the abstract meaning 'to worship' or the more concrete meaning of the act of prostrating one's self before someone and kissing their feet (see Arndt and Gingrich). It was the custom among the Persians to prostrate one's self before the king and kiss his feet. Because the Persians saw the king as an incarnate deity, this political act was charged with sacred meaning. Nicea II used the word proskuneo for the veneration of icons but at the same time qualifies it by attaching timetike (to honor) to it. This is the word used in "Honor your father and mother". However it appears that Nicea II did a more than adequate job in defining and circumscribing the terminology for the veneration of icons and so anticipated much of Calvin's philological arguments.

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The Historical Argument

Calvin's historical argument is seriously flawed. In Institutes 1.11.13 he is under the impression that for the first 500 years the Christian churches were devoid of images and that it was only with the decline of doctrinal purity that images began to appear in the churches.

If the authority of the ancient church moves us in any way, we will recall that for about five hundred years, during which religion was still flourishing, and a pure doctrine thriving, Christian Churches were commonly empty of images. Thus, it was when the purity of the ministry had somewhat degenerated that they were first introduced for the adornment of churches (Institutes 1.11.13).

An example of the weakness of Calvin's understanding of early and historic Christianity is that Calvin seems to be unaware of (or he ignores) Eusebius' Church History in which mention is made of colored portraits that were made of Christ and his apostles (7:18). The fact that Eusebius lived c. 265 to c. 339 and that the final version of his Church History appeared in A.D. 325 deals a devastating blow to Calvin's historical argument. Furthermore it undermines his theory of church history. The presence of icons in the early church implies either that icons were an integral part of the early Christian tradition or that Christianity had suffered corruption from its early days. To assume the latter position is extremely problematic. It calls into question Christ's promises to be with the Church always, to guide it by the Holy Spirit, and to establish it in truth.

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Did Calvin Understand Eastern Orthodoxy?

The numerous omissions and oversights in Calvin's polemic against the icons reflect not so much weaknesses in Calvin's scholarship but constraints imposed upon him by historical circumstances. One factor to consider is that Calvin probably never saw an icon in his life. Also Geneva had been devoid of images for a number of years when Calvin arrived in 1535.

Calvin did know of the Orthodox veneration of icons and it appears that Calvin was aware of the different ways Western Roman and Eastern Orthodox Christians venerated the icons. However there is no evidence of Calvin ever having had direct contact with Orthodox Christians. Thus, Calvin's disparaging remark about the "Greek Christians" in Institutes 1.11.4 can be seen as the result of uninformed stereotyping. [4]

Similar constraints probably applied to Calvin's understanding of Nicea II. Calvin knew of the decision of Nicea II in 787 to affirm the use of icons (Institutes 1.11.14). To refute the pro-iconist stance of Nicea II Calvin drew upon the anti-iconist Libri Carolini. But what must be kept in mind is that all this was quite new to Calvin. Kretschmar points out that the decisions of Nicea II was published in 1540 and the Libri Carolini became available in 1549 (1990:79).

This leads Kretschmar to conclude that Calvin's opposition to icons was not based upon direct encounters with icons nor was it founded upon familiarity with Orthodox theology.

The way Calvin actually deals with the 8th-century Councils of the iconoclast controversy shows he did not really get to grips with the questions at issue in the Byzantine theology of that age. For that matter he probably never saw an icon in his life (1990:80).

Some of Calvin's polemic is understandable in the context of the Reformation and as a reaction to the excessive ornamentation of medieval European Catholic churches. St. Bernard of Clairvaux was troubled by this excessive ornamentation that resulted in the Church "resplendent in her walls and beggarly in her poor" (Coulton 1928:573). The extravagance of religious art was compounded by the absence of a regulating principle. Unlike the Eastern artistic tradition which had an art-manual, in the West there was no centralization of its artistic tradition (Coulton 1928:243-244). This resulted in Western European religious art being much more free in their depiction of God. Michaelangelo's depiction of God the Father with the long flowing beard in The Creation of Adam in the famous Sistine Chapel frescoes would not be allowed in the Orthodox tradition. During 1300s the Trinity was often depicted in the form of a man with three mouths, three noses, and four eyes or in the form of a head with three faces (see Coulton 1928:378). The excesses were such that the Roman Catholic Church was forced to curb these excesses during the Counter-Reformation.

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Conclusion: Was Calvin Wrong?

In conclusion, Calvin's polemic against the icons is unconvincing because of four significant flaws: (1) Calvin's philological argument (dulia vs. latreia) has no bearing on the terminology of Nicea II, (2) Calvin's historical argument is plain wrong, (3) Calvin's theological argument failed to take into account the theological implication of the Incarnation as spelled out by John of Damascus, and (4) Calvin's biblical proof text overlooked some important passages.

Because Calvin never dealt directly with the historic Christian nor the Eastern Orthodox position on icons, he never effectively refuted the Orthodox position nor addressed the historic Early Christian teaching and practice. His polemic may be valid in the context of the Reformation and when viewed against the abuses and excesses that the Reformation set out to right. However it should be noted that medieval Catholicism by Calvin's time had diverged significantly from Eastern Orthodoxy and Nicea II. For this reason it can be claimed that Calvin's polemic against the icons is incomplete and possibly invalid.

Calvin's polemic against the icons flows from the deep structure of his theology. Calvin's theological system rests on two major premises: (1) that God is utterly transcendent and unknowable, and (2) God's transcendence is bridged by means of divine revelation, particularly the Bible as the Word of God. The preeminence given to the written Word of God in Calvin's theological system builds upon Martin Luther's discovery of the radical power of the Gospel to transform the sinner. In the Reformed tradition the preaching of the Word of God takes priority to the exclusion of everything else: the sacraments, the icons, the saints.

Calvin's emphasis on the written Word of God as the basis for sure knowledge of God leads him to exclude images as means for teaching people about God.

A similar claim can be made for the Eastern Orthodox understanding of the icons. The Orthodox Church's veneration of icons flows from the logic of patristic theology. The Orthodox theological system rests on two premises: (1) that God is utterly transcendent and unknowable, and (2) that God's transcendence has been bridged through the Incarnation. For Orthodox Christians the Incarnation forms the basis for the icons.

Christianity is the revelation not only of the Word of God, but also of the Image of God, in which His likeness is revealed (Leonid Ouspensky in Forest 1997:57).

The Incarnation was crucial to the theology of the early Church. The significance of the Incarnation was such that one cannot understand the Christology of the early Church apart from it. In the same way one cannot understand the decisions of the ecumenical councils [5] apart from the Incarnation. The interplay between these two factors helped determine the outcome of Nicea II. Alain Blancy notes,

The Council's theology was a theology of the Incarnation and it depended directly on the Christology of Chalcedon which had been defined four centuries previously. The canons of Nicea make it clear, in particular, that representation of the figure of Christ was not merely legitimate but requisite, because of and on the basis of the Incarnation (1990:40).

The issue then becomes not just a matter of images but of Christology. If the hypostatic union is indeed (as taught in the Chalcedonian Definition) a personal unity of the divine and human natures of Christ then the icons of Christ and the veneration directed towards them complement each other. Blancy writes: "True God and true man without separation and without confusion: the Christology of Chalcedon fits the case of the icon perfectly and is expressed in it" (Blancy 1990:40). For Protestants who accept the first four Councils this presents something of a challenge. [6] Nicea II (the seventh council) becomes a logical extension of the theology of Chalcedon (the fourth council). The Protestant who accepts the Council of Chalcedon must then wonder if accepting Chalcedon leads logically to accepting Nicea II.

From the standpoint of historical theology, the Reformed understanding of the Incarnation represents a paradigm shift in theology. [7] Although Calvin did not deal directly with the concept of the Incarnation as providing a basis for icons, the Second Helvetic Confession did. The Second Helvetic Confession [8] (chapter IV) decisively dismisses any attempt to use the Incarnation to justify icons of Christ:

Although Christ assumed human nature, yet he did not on that account assume it in order to provide a model for carvers and painters.

A further reading of this confession shows that this dismissal arises not out a mere prejudice against icons but out of a radically different understanding of the Incarnation.

He denied that his bodily presence would be profitable for the Church, and promised that he would be near us by his Spirit forever [John 16:7].

The attitude of the Second Helvetic Confession towards the Incarnation stands in sharp contrast to Nicea II:

One of the traditions which we thus preserve is that of making representational paintings, which is in accord with the history of the preaching of the Gospel, as confirming the real and not merely imaginary incarnation of God the Word (Logos).... (in Cavarnos 1973:10; emphasis added)

The difference here is not minor but profound. Theological differences over the Incarnation inevitably lead to differences in practice. Where Calvinism emphasizes the written Word, Orthodoxy's emphasis is on the Word made flesh. The Calvinist emphasis on the written Word results in the centrality of the pulpit and the preaching ministry in worship. Orthodoxy with its emphasis on the Word made flesh leads to liturgical worship, liturgical vestments, the use of incense and icons, and most importantly the centrality of the Eucharist in worship. Although Calvin and the early Church Fathers believed in the Incarnation, their understanding of the Incarnation led to divergent theologies and practices.

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Can a Calvinist Venerate the Icons?

In the end it must be recognized that anyone who actively venerates the icons has to some degree made a decisive break from Calvin and Calvinism. To venerate the icons involves acting on theological principles alien to Calvinism. The veneration of the icons is good example of the principle lex orans, lex credens -- the rule of worship is the rule of faith. This ancient theological principle teaches that the way we worship regulates the way we do theology. Conversely, the way we do theology affects the way we worship. This ancient theological principle was a common understanding in the early Church, is also good sociology, and applies to Calvinism.

As has been shown in this treatment, Calvin's opposition to the icons arises from the underlying logic of Calvin's theology. Calvin's primary motive for his anti-iconist stance lies his in concern for the recovery of a true knowledge of God which leads to pure worship in the Church as well as the reform of the Church. For this reason the Protestant Reformation was concerned not just with the reformation of theology but also with the reformation of worship. Thus, the plain interiors of Protestant churches are not tangential but integral to Protestantism and its theology. The bare interiors are an embodiment of Protestantism's theology, especially its emphasis on the primacy of Scripture. Therefore, iconoclasm cannot be easily detached from Calvin's theology.

This leaves Evangelicals interested in historic Christianity in general, and Eastern Orthodoxy in particular, in a quandary; or to put it more positively at a crossroads. They can either follow the more recent paradigm of Protestantism or they can follow the paradigm of historic Christianity.

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The Challenge of the Icons

Although icons may seem to be a quaint curiosity to many Evangelicals, the icons in fact pose a profound theological challenge to Evangelical Christians. Icons stand as a significant challenge to Evangelicalism because it calls into question its Protestant presuppositions. One consequence of this realization is that Calvin's failure to effectively deal with Nicea II and the historic Christian teaching on icons means that the burden is on the Calvinists of the twentieth century. It is the responsibility of Calvin's descendants to pick up where Calvin has left off.

We are now living at a historic moment when genuine dialogue can take place between the Christians of the Reformed tradition and Christians from the Eastern Orthodox tradition--a tradition that retains the historic understanding and use of icons continues down to this day. There is an unprecedented openness among Protestants to Orthodoxy. Kretschmar notes that until recently it was only the specialists who were aware of the Orthodox theology of icons (1990:84), but there has begun some attempts by Protestants to take icons seriously. Some believe that icons are compatible with Calvinism, e.g., Alain Blancy's chapter which has the subtitle "Towards a Reformed Theology of the Icon". There will be Calvinists and other Protestants of the Reformed tradition who will continue to insist that the Orthodox position on icons is wrong. Hopefully though, Evangelicals and Christians of the Reformed tradition will not cavalierly dismiss the icons but take up the challenge to meet and dialogue with Eastern Orthodox Christians.

Robert Arakaki

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arndt, William F. and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Fourth revised and augmented edition, 1952. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 1952.

Blancy, Alain. "Protestantism and the Seventh Ecumenical Council: Towards a Reformed Theology of the Icon." In Icons: Windows On Eternity, pp. 35-45. Compiled by Gennadios Limouris. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1990.

Bouwsma, William J. John Calvin: A Sixteenth-Century Portrait. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Ford Lewis Battles, translator. The Library of Christian Classics. Volume XX. John T. McNeill, editor. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960.

Cavarnos, Constantine. The Icon: Its Spiritual Basis and Purpose. Authoritative Christian texts, translated from the original Greek and edited with notes by Constantine Cavarnos. First published 1955. Belmont, Massachusetts: Institute for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 1973.

Coulton, G.G. Art and the Reformation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928.

Demus, Otto. Byzantine Art and the West. The Wrightsman Lectures III. New York: New York University Press, 1970.

Eusebius. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. G.A. Williamson, translator. New York: Penguin Books, 1965.

Forest, Jim. Praying With Icons. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1997

Gillquist, Peter E., ed. Coming Home: Why Protestant Clergy Are Becoming Orthodox. Ben Lomond, California: Conciliar Press, 1992.

Kennedy, Jon. "Orthodoxy on the Rise" in Again Magazine, pp. 24-27. (August 1997) Ben Lomond, California: Conciliar Press, 1997.

Kretschmar, Georg. "The Reformation and the Theology of Images." In Icons: Windows On Eternity, pp. 76-85. Compiled by Gennadios Limouris. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1990.

Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Second Edition, Enlarged 1970. International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, Volume 2, Number 2. Otto Neurath, Editor-in-Chief. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962.

Leith, John H., ed. Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine from the Bible to the Present. Third edition, 1982. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1963.

Ouspensky, Leonid. Theology of the Icon. Vol. I. Trans. Anthony Gythiel. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978.

Schonborn, Christoph. "Theological Presuppositions of the Image Controversy." In Icons: Windows On Eternity, pp. 86-92. Compiled by Gennadios Limouris. Geneva: WCC Publications, 1990.

Ugolnik, Anthony. The Illuminating Icon. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1989.

Ware, Timothy. The Orthodox Church. Reprinted 1973. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1963.

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[1] There are notable exceptions within Protestantism, e.g., Lutheranism and Anglicanism.

[2] The word "Institutes" comes from the Latin institutio which can signify: (1) instruction, (2) a summary, (3) a manual, or all three (Bouwsma 1988:17).

[3] This can be verified using the Scripture index provided in the back of Vol. II of the Battles' edition.

[4] Calvin writes, "But we must note that a "likeness" no less than a "graven image" is forbidden. Thus is the foolish scruple of the Greek Christians refuted. For they consider that they have acquitted themselves beautifully if they do not make sculptures of God, while they wantonly indulge in pictures more than any other nation" (1.11.4).

[5] The seven Ecumenical Councils were crucial to the theological development of the early Church. It was at these gatherings that the Church set forth the theological benchmarks of the Christian faith: Nicea I (A.D. 325) which affirmed the full divinity of Christ; the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) which affirmed the two natures of Christ; and Nicea II (A.D. 787) which affirmed the icons.

[6] Prof. Garth Rosell, Professor of Church History at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, noted that Protestants accept the first four Ecumenical Councils, whereas Orthodox and Roman Catholics accept all seven Ecumenical Councils. Although much of Evangelicalism pay little or no attention to the early Ecumenical Councils, Evangelicals who belong to mainline denominations or who take theology seriously accept to some degree the decisions of the early councils, e.g., the divinity of Christ, the dual nature of Christ as truly divine and truly human.

[7] The phrase "paradigm shift" is taken from Thomas Kuhn's classic The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

[8] The Second Helvetic Confession has been described as "the most universal of Reformed creeds" (see Leith's Creeds of the Churches p. 131).